作者：Yazdiha，Hajar; 民族与种族研究，2019年4月
近期欧洲对穆斯林的消极态度大幅增加，但欧洲穆斯林对歧视的看法因国家背景而异。本文发现了一个令人震惊的现象：（1）在更包容的环境下，穆斯林感受更多的歧视经历；（2）在更包容的环境下，土生土长的（第二代）穆斯林比穆斯林移民更容易感知社会敌意。例如，在更为包容的英国和法国穆斯林感知到更大的社会歧视，而在更为排外的德国和西班牙穆斯林反而感受到较少的排斥。与文化适应有助于消除种族歧视的理论相反，土生土长的穆斯林在更为包容性的国家中感知到比穆斯林移民更大的排斥。
本文用三种不同的方法解释了对歧视的看法：微观层面的社会心理学理论（例如，随着时间的推移，群体的认同如何与政治环境相互作用而产生对包容性的不同期望；个人的歧视经历在不同的国家背景下产生的影响等）、社会结构层面的移民理论（融合的文化内容、融合的社会结构。例如，通过将分段同化理论与文化社会学联系起来，研究土著人如何利用更广泛的文化曲目，从而形成对歧视及其争论的认知，从而探讨认知的代际差异。对一个国家的不同移民群体进行比较，可能会考虑不同文化背景下种族、族裔和宗教的象征性边界对包容的期望是如何变化的。学者们还可以研究在不同的穆斯林社区中，对不同国家背景下的群体地位的看法是如何变化的，以及他们与接受国的历史关系）和宏观层面的公民理论（对公民权的宏观研究可以进一步探讨国家哲学和一体化政策的个别影响。法律环境和文化环境如何随着时间和不同的政治相互作用和变化，例如脱欧后仇恨犯罪的上升，国家法律和政策产生、再生和挑战本地人士和外来人士的文化概念化）。
总之，欧洲穆斯林对歧视的感知取决于多重复杂因素的相互作用，减小甚至消除歧视必须从多方面寻求根源并对症下药，这里没有一劳永逸或统一的解决方案。（摘编翻译：周学文）
Exclusion through acculturation? Comparing first- and second-generation European Muslims' perceptions of discrimination across four national contexts
Yazdiha, Hajar, Ethnic And Racial Studies，April 2019
Conclusion
These findings highlight a significant puzzle: Muslims perceive greater societal discrimination in the more inclusionary settings of Britain and France and identify less exclusion in the more exclusionary settings of Germany and Spain, and native-born Muslims perceive greater exclusion than Muslim immigrants in more inclusionary countries. According to survey results, this pattern is not reducible to variation in individual experiences of discrimination, though individual experience is associated with a greater perception of societal hostility. The pattern is not due to cross-national differences in structural incorporation, either – in Britain and France, respondents were more likely to be native-born and more likely to report income above the national median. To begin to explain this puzzle, I offer an expanded cultural consciousness approach that bridges three levels of analysis: a social psychological approach focused on micro-level experiences, a migration approach focused on meso-level structures of incorporation, and a political sociology approach centred on macro-level citizenship regimes. The recognition of these three simultaneous levels of analysis offers insights for each of these literature.
The social psychological study of perceptions of discrimination may further analyze how cultural categorizations interact with legal contexts to shape the way intergroup interactions are perceived. For example, how does the positionality of group identity interact with political contexts over time to produce different sets of expectations around inclusion? For instance, groups who are socioeconomically or racially advantaged may have greater expectations of inclusion in an inclusionary host society than groups with long histories of oppression. Individual experiences of discrimination may also have different effects across national contexts, for example, in legal contexts more amenable to categorizing discrimination. Migration scholars might take more account of the cultural content of incorporation, in addition to the social structures of incorporation. The generational gap in perceptions might be explored by bridging segmented assimilation theory with cultural sociology to examine how the native-born draw upon a broader cultural repertoire, enabling the formation of perceptions of discrimination and its contestation. A comparison of different migrant groups in a single country might consider how expectations of inclusion vary across multiple culturally contextual symbolic boundaries of race, ethnicity, and religion. Scholars may also examine how perceptions of group position against national contexts vary within heterogeneous Muslim communities and their historical relationships to receiving nations. For example, how do Turkish Muslims in Germany who have historically been labour migrants understand inclusion compared to South Asian Muslims from countries of British colonization in Great Britain? Studies show how among American Muslims, perceptions of discrimination vary across racial and ethnic groups (Zainiddinov?2016Zainiddinov,?Hakim.?2016. “Racial and Ethnic Differences in Perceptions of Discrimination among Muslim Americans.”?Ethnic and Racial Studies?39 (15):?2701–2721. doi:?10.1080/01419870.2016.1164877[Taylor & Francis Online],?[Web of Science ?],?,?[Google Scholar]), emphasizing how national constructions of group identities can intersect and shape divergent experiences and perceptions of discrimination.
Finally, the largely macro scholarship on citizenship may further explore the individual implications of national philosophies and policies of integration. How do legal contexts and cultural contexts interact and change over time and through different political junctures, such as the rise in hate crimes after Brexit? National laws and policies generate, reproduce, and challenge cultural conceptualizations of insiders and outsiders. However, laws and policies are not autonomous from cultural expressions but are rather simultaneously constituted by and in tension with culture (Yazdiha?2017Yazdiha,?Hajar.?2017. “The relationality of law and culture: Dominant approaches and new directions for cultural sociologists.”?Sociology Compass?11 (12):?1–12. doi:?10.1111/soc4.12545[Crossref],?[Web of Science ?],?,?[Google Scholar]). Citizenship is not constituted by simply?knowing?one belongs to the polity, it is also constituted by the?feeling?of belonging to the polity. Feelings of exclusion from the polity may matter just as much as formal policies. Given ongoing debates surrounding immigration, incorporation, and the boundaries of citizenship, it is increasingly important to examine the mechanisms through which national policies shape the lived realities of individuals negotiating the complexities of social membership and societal inclusion.